The hot compression deformation behavior of Mg-6Zn-1Mn-0.5Ca(ZM61-0.5Ca)and Mg-6Zn-1Mn-2Sn-0.5Ca(ZMT612-0.5Ca)alloys was investigated at deformation temperatures ranging from 250℃to 400℃and strain rates varying from...The hot compression deformation behavior of Mg-6Zn-1Mn-0.5Ca(ZM61-0.5Ca)and Mg-6Zn-1Mn-2Sn-0.5Ca(ZMT612-0.5Ca)alloys was investigated at deformation temperatures ranging from 250℃to 400℃and strain rates varying from 0.001 s-1 to 1 s-1.The results show that the addition of Sn promotes dynamic recrystallization(DRX),and CaMgSn phases can act as nucleation sites during the compression deformation.Flow stress increases with increasing the strain rate and decreasing the temperature.Both the ZM61-0.5Ca and ZMT612-0.5Ca alloys exhibit obvious DRX characteristics.CaMgSn phases can effectively inhibit dislocation motion with the addition of Sn,thus increasing the peak fl ow stress of the alloy.The addition of Sn increases the hot deformation activation energy of the ZM61-0.5Ca alloy from 199.654 kJ/mol to 276.649 kJ/mol,thus improving the thermal stability of the alloy.For the ZMT612-0.5Ca alloy,the optimal hot deformation parameters are determined to be a deformation temperature range of 350–400℃and a strain rate range of 0.001–0.01 s-1.展开更多
Oxide dispersion strengthened(ODS)alloys are extensively used owing to high thermostability and creep strength contributed from uniformly dispersed fine oxides particles.However,the existence of these strengthening pa...Oxide dispersion strengthened(ODS)alloys are extensively used owing to high thermostability and creep strength contributed from uniformly dispersed fine oxides particles.However,the existence of these strengthening particles also deteriorates the processability and it is of great importance to establish accurate processing maps to guide the thermomechanical processes to enhance the formability.In this study,we performed particle swarm optimization-based back propagation artificial neural network model to predict the high temperature flow behavior of 0.25wt%Al2O3 particle-reinforced Cu alloys,and compared the accuracy with that of derived by Arrhenius-type constitutive model and back propagation artificial neural network model.To train these models,we obtained the raw data by fabricating ODS Cu alloys using the internal oxidation and reduction method,and conducting systematic hot compression tests between 400 and800℃with strain rates of 10-2-10 S-1.At last,processing maps for ODS Cu alloys were proposed by combining processing parameters,mechanical behavior,microstructure characterization,and the modeling results achieved a coefficient of determination higher than>99%.展开更多
Uniaxial compression tests and microstructural analyses were performed on a Ni-based wrought superalloy across a temperature range spanning the γ + γ′ duplex-phase region (below the γ′ solvus) and the γ single-p...Uniaxial compression tests and microstructural analyses were performed on a Ni-based wrought superalloy across a temperature range spanning the γ + γ′ duplex-phase region (below the γ′ solvus) and the γ single-phase region (above the γ′ solvus). Analysis of the flow stress curves using an Arrhenius constitutive equation revealed that the activation energy for dynamic recrystallization (DRX) is significantly higher in the duplex-phase region than in the single-phase region. A three-dimensional hot processing map was developed to delineate the influence of temperature, strain rate, and strain on the alloy’s workability. The results also indicated that rapid flow softening at low temperatures (950-980 ℃) and a high strain rate (1 s−1) is attributable to processing instability. During deformation in the γ + γ′ duplex region, both discontinuous dynamic recrystallization (DDRX) and continuous dynamic recrystallization (CDRX) mechanisms were active, with DDRX becoming the dominant mechanism at higher temperatures. Initially, the dispersed γ′ precipitates retard DRX. However, these precipitates subsequently dissolve and re-precipitate along DRX grain boundaries as nano- to micro-scale particles, which effectively pin the boundaries and inhibit grain growth.展开更多
This review consolidates decades of research on hot-deformation processing maps into a single,mechanism-based framework that connects macroscopic stability criteria with high-temperature deformation physics.It traces ...This review consolidates decades of research on hot-deformation processing maps into a single,mechanism-based framework that connects macroscopic stability criteria with high-temperature deformation physics.It traces the evolution of major formulations—including those by Prasad,Murty,and Kim-Jeong—back to their common thermokinetic foundation in creep and dynamic-recrystallization(DRX)kinetics.Through this unified treatment,the review clarifies that power-dissipation efficiency(η)and flow-instability indices are different projections of the same rate-dependent constitutive response,which also dictates transitions between power-law deformation mechanism regimes and the onset of power-law breakdown.The paper is organized to move from theory to application.Early sections reconstruct the mathematical origin and physical meaning ofηand instability functions;middle sections benchmark these criteria across published Mg datasets;and later sections provide practical guidance for constructing reliable maps using physics-constrained regression and uncertainty reporting.The review further clarifies—by distinguishing necessity from sufficiency in the DRX-ηrelationship—why DRX annotations and high-ηdomains frequently coincide without implying causal equivalence.Collectively,these contributions transform processing maps from empirical contour charts into predictive diagnostic tools and offers a reproducible workflow and interpretive hierarchy adaptable to diverse alloy systems and data qualities.展开更多
To obtain the process parameters and the micro structure evolution law of the Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn titanium alloy during high-temperature deformation,thermal simulation tests of high-temperature deformation behavior were con...To obtain the process parameters and the micro structure evolution law of the Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn titanium alloy during high-temperature deformation,thermal simulation tests of high-temperature deformation behavior were conducted on this alloy with an original equiaxedα-βforged microstructure.The test temperatures ranged from 800to 920℃,the strain rates ranged from 0.01 to 10 s-1,and the deformation amount was 60%.A hyperbolic sine flow stress model and a hot processing map for the Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn titanium alloy were established.The high-temperature deformation behavior and micro structure evolution law of the forged alloy were investigated.The research results indicated that,from the stress-strain curves of the titanium alloy,when the strain rate was constant,the flow stress decreased with an increase in temperature;when the deformation temperature was constant,the flow stress increased with an increase in the strain rate.Under certain temperature and strain rate conditions,the flow stress rose rapidly with an increase in strain,reached a peak value,and then gradually decreased.After the strain reached 0.4,it tended to stabilize.By drawing and analyzing a processing map,we found the optimal hot deformation temperature range for the Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn titanium alloy to be between 850 and 920℃,with a strain rate range of 0.01-0.75 s-1.Observations of the metallo graphic micro structure showed that when the alloy was deformed below 830℃,no significant changes occurred in the metallo graphic micro structure.When deformed between 830 and 860℃,the lamellarα-phase exhibited obvious spheroidization,and dynamic recrystallization occurred.With a further increase in temperature,the primaryα-phase rapidly decreased,the secondary striatedαphase increased andβ-phase grains grew.展开更多
Ti750s titanium alloy,a novel high-temperature titanium alloy designed for short-term service at elevated temperatures(700–750℃),has previously lacked comprehensive understanding of its hot processing behavior.In th...Ti750s titanium alloy,a novel high-temperature titanium alloy designed for short-term service at elevated temperatures(700–750℃),has previously lacked comprehensive understanding of its hot processing behavior.In this study,the high-temperature deformation behavior and microstructural evolution of the Ti750s alloy were systematically investigated through thermal simulation compression tests conducted at temperatures ranging from 900 to 1070℃and strain rates between 0.1 and 10 s⁻1.A hot processing map was constructed using the dynamic material model to optimize the hot processing parameters.The results indicated that the optimal processing window was between 1040 and 1070℃with a strain rate of 0.1 s⁻1.Processing within the instability region resulted in localized plastic deformation,manifesting as pronounced shear bands and a highly heterogeneous strain distribution;this region should be avoided during hot deformation.Within theα+βphase safety zone characterized by low power dissipation rates between 0.32 and 0.4,the primary deformation mechanism in this region was dynamic recovery(DRV),where the lamellarαgrains underwent deformation and rotation.Conversely,in theα+βphase safety zone with high-power dissipation rates between 0.45 and 0.52,dynamic spheroidization of theαphase and dynamic recrystallization(DRX)of theβphase occurred concurrently.In theβphase safety zone with low power dissipation rates between 0.32 and 0.51,the primary deformation mechanism consisted of DRV ofβgrains,accompanied by limited DRX.However,in theβphase safety zone with high-power dissipation rates exceeding 0.56,both DRV and DRX ofβgrains took place,resulted in a significant increase in the size and number of recrystallized grains compared to those observed under low power dissipation conditions.展开更多
The hot deformation behavior of GH3230 superalloy under selected deformation conditions ranging from 950 to 1150℃with strain rates ranging from 0.01 to 10 s–1was studied through isothermal hot compression experim...The hot deformation behavior of GH3230 superalloy under selected deformation conditions ranging from 950 to 1150℃with strain rates ranging from 0.01 to 10 s–1was studied through isothermal hot compression experiments.Based on the obtained flow stresses,a strain-compensated Arrhenius-type model was developed for the description of hot deformation behavior,and the consistency of the predicted flow stresses with the experimental values confirms the accuracy of the developed model.Furthermore,the processing maps were constructed and classified into the instability domain,low-dissipation stability domain and high-dissipation stability domain in accordance with the dynamic material model and the instability criterion.Microstructure observations indicated that the instability domain exhibits the adiabatic shear bands formation,and the low-power dissipation domain exhibits partial dynamic recrystallization(DRX),with the temperature increase/strain rate decrease being favorable for the DRX.The high-dissipation stability domain was occupied by uniformly fine equiaxed grains,and was identified as the optimal processing window,which corresponds to the deformation conditions at 1070–1150℃ with strain rates ranging from 0.01 to 0.15 s–1.Moreover,various DRX mechanisms are observed to occur during the hot deformation,which include the discontinuous dynamic recrystallization,characterized by nucleation at bulged boundaries,the continuous dynamic recrystallization with subgrain progressive rotation and the particle stimulated nucleation mechanism with stimulated nucleation of carbide particles.展开更多
The spherical Ti particle(Tip)reinforced Mg-5Zn-0.5Ca(Tip/ZX50)composite was prepared via the semisolid stirring casting process and the effects of Tipon the hot deformation and hot processing behavior of mat...The spherical Ti particle(Tip)reinforced Mg-5Zn-0.5Ca(Tip/ZX50)composite was prepared via the semisolid stirring casting process and the effects of Tipon the hot deformation and hot processing behavior of matrix alloy were investigated through uniaxial hot compression testing.The results indicate that a particle deformation zone(PDZ)forms around the Tipwith the deformation of the Tip/ZX50 composite,which is propitious to the dynamic recrystallization(DRX)of the matrix alloy.The range of the PDZ and the promoting effect of the Tipon DRXed nucleation are inversely related to the deformation degree of the Tip.Moreover,the deformation of Tipalleviates the high stress in the matrix alloy during deformation,expanding the processing range and reducing the average deformation activation energy of the matrix alloy.Notably,the minimum processing temperature(493 K)of the Tip/ZX50 composite is significantly lower than that of hardened particle reinforced magnesium matrix composites.The hot deformation mechanism of the Tip/ZX50 composite is dislocation climb controlled by both lattice diffusion and pipe diffusion.展开更多
Bacterial and mycoplasma infections pose a severe hazard to human life and property.These necessitate the development of antibacterial metallic materials that can be produced efficiently in large quantities.In this st...Bacterial and mycoplasma infections pose a severe hazard to human life and property.These necessitate the development of antibacterial metallic materials that can be produced efficiently in large quantities.In this study,an(Fe63.3Mn14Si9.1Cr9.8C3.8)86Cu12Ag2medium-entropy alloy(MEA)consisting of in situ FCC1(austenite)and FCC2(Cu–Ag-rich)phases was prepared.It displayed a yield strength of 1100 MPa,fracture strength of 1921 MPa,and compressive plasticity of 27%at room temperature.This is attributed to the low stacking fault energy(3.7 m J m-2)inducing strong transformation-induced plasticity(TRIP),twinning-induced plasticity(TWIP),and lattice distortion.The alloy contained nano-and microscale antibacterial phases.This enabled it to achieve an antimicrobial efficiency higher than 99.9%against E.coli and S.aureus after6 h of exposure.The hot working efficiency makes it preferable for mass production with critical process parameters.A constitutive model was established using the Arrhenius equation to validate the applicability of the dynamic materials model(DMM).Subsequently,the hot processing map of the medium-entropy alloy was established based on the DMM.The optimal processing parameters were determined as 800℃with strain rates of10–1–10–2s-1.The low stacking fault energy ensures that dynamic recrystallization is the primary softening mechanism in the“safe”region.Finally,the density of states(DOS)of the MEA(determined by first-principles calculations)was significantly lower(162.1 eV)than those of Ni and Fe.This indicated a strong high-temperature stability.The DOS increased marginally with an increase in deformation.展开更多
Using a Gleeble 3500 thermomechanical simulation testing machine,the hot deformation characteristics of 23Cr-8Ni steel were investigated under the conditions of 1000–1250℃ and 0.001‒10 s−1.Furthermore,the microst...Using a Gleeble 3500 thermomechanical simulation testing machine,the hot deformation characteristics of 23Cr-8Ni steel were investigated under the conditions of 1000–1250℃ and 0.001‒10 s−1.Furthermore,the microstructure of the characterization region was analyzed to investigate the recrystallization behavior of 23Cr-8Ni steel.Results show that as the strain rate decreases and the deformation temperature increases,the flow stress decreases.Because the softening phenomenon occurs after the peak stress,the flow stress decreases.The stress index(n)is 4.28,and the thermal deformation activation energy(Q)is 588878 J/mol.Processing map is established,and an optimal thermal processing range of 0.001–0.1 s−1 and 1000–1200℃ is achieved,therefore greatly promoting the yield rate.展开更多
The current study investigates the hot deformation behavior of Al-12Ce-0.4Sc alloy with an isothermal hot compression test at300-450°C/0.001-1s-1.Results show that the flow curves exhibit typical dynamic recov...The current study investigates the hot deformation behavior of Al-12Ce-0.4Sc alloy with an isothermal hot compression test at300-450°C/0.001-1s-1.Results show that the flow curves exhibit typical dynamic recovery(DRV)and slight flow-softening behavior.Additionally,the flow curves overlap owing to the dynamic strain aging(DSA)phenomenon at 400-450°C/0.01-0.1 s-1.Two different constitutive models were developed using the experimental data for hot deformation:(i)strain-compensated Arrhenius model(Method I)and(ii)logistic regression model(MethodⅡ).The average stress exponent(n)and apparent activation energy(Q)are 14.25 and 209.58 k J·mol-1,respectively.The hot-working processing map shows that the optimal processing condition is 400°C/1 s-1,and the maximum power dissipation efficiency is 22%.Stable and unstable domains indicated by the processing map were correlated using scanning electron microscopy(SEM),transmission electron microscopy(TEM),and electron backscatter diffraction(EBSD)characterization techniques.The unstable domains are primarily associated with pro-eutectic Al11Ce3intermetallic fracture and interfacial cracks betweenα-Al and pro-eutectic Al11Ce3.展开更多
The hot deformation characteristics of induction quenched Zr-Sn-Nb-Fe-Cr alloy forged rod in the temperature range of 600–900°C and strain rate range of 0.001–1 s-1were studied by Gleeble3800 uniaxial hot co...The hot deformation characteristics of induction quenched Zr-Sn-Nb-Fe-Cr alloy forged rod in the temperature range of 600–900°C and strain rate range of 0.001–1 s-1were studied by Gleeble3800 uniaxial hot compression experiment.The results show that the flow stress decreases with the decrease in strain rate and the increase in deformation temperature in the true stress-true strain curve of Zr-Sn-Nb-Fe-Cr alloy forged rod.Moreover,the hot deformation characteristics of the material can be described by the hyperbolic sine constitutive equation.Under the experimental conditions,the average thermal activation energy(Q)of the alloy was 412.9105 kJ/mol.The microstructure analysis of the processing map and the sample after hot compression shows that the optimum hot working parameters of the alloy are 795–900°C,0.001–0.0068 s-1,at the deformation temperature of 600–900°C,and the strain rate of 0.001–1 s-1.展开更多
This study systematically investigates the hot deformation behavior and microstructural evolution of CoNiV medium-entropy alloy(MEA)in the temperature range of 950-1100℃ and strain rates of 0.001-1 s-1.The Arrheni...This study systematically investigates the hot deformation behavior and microstructural evolution of CoNiV medium-entropy alloy(MEA)in the temperature range of 950-1100℃ and strain rates of 0.001-1 s-1.The Arrhenius model and machine learning model were developed to forecast flow stresses at various conditions.The predictive capability of both models was assessed using the coefficients of determination(R2),average absolute relative error(AARE),and root mean square error(RMSE).The findings show that the osprey optimization algorithm convolutional neural network(OOA-CNN)model outperforms the Arrhenius model,achieving a high R2 value of 0.99959 and lower AARE and RMSE values.The flow stress that the OOA-CNN model predicted was used to generate power dissipation maps and instability maps under different strains.Finally,combining the processing map and microstructure characterization,the ideal processing domain was identified as 1100℃ at strain rates of 0.01-0.1 s-1.This study provided key insights into optimizing the hot working process of CoNiV MEA.展开更多
The hot deformation behavior of platinum was investigated through hot compression experiments.A constitutive equation for the prediction of the flow behavior of platinum was derived from analysis of stress-strain curv...The hot deformation behavior of platinum was investigated through hot compression experiments.A constitutive equation for the prediction of the flow behavior of platinum was derived from analysis of stress-strain curves.Using the constitutive equation,the peak stress of platinum during hot working was calculated across varying temperatures and strain rates.Results show that the predicted values have strong agreement with experimental results.Electron backscatter diffraction analysis further reveals the thermal deformation mechanisms under distinct conditions within the safe processing region.The optimal processing parameters are identified as deformation temperatures of 860-910 K and strain rates of 0.01-0.1 s−1.Discontinuous yielding observed at elevated strain rates is attributed to the multiplication and movement of the mobile dislocations at grain boundaries.展开更多
To investigate the influence of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy with as-homogenized and as-rolled initial microstructures on the tensile flow behavior,isothermal tensile tests were conducted on a GLEEBLE-3500 isothermal simulator a...To investigate the influence of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy with as-homogenized and as-rolled initial microstructures on the tensile flow behavior,isothermal tensile tests were conducted on a GLEEBLE-3500 isothermal simulator at temperatures of 380-440℃and strain rates of 0.05-1 s−1.The Johnson-Cook model,Hensel-Spittel model,strain-compensated Arrhenius model,and critical fracture strain model were established.Results show that through the evaluation of the models using the correlation coefficient(R)and the average absolute relative error,the strain-compensated Arrhenius model can represent the flow behavior of the alloy more accurately.Shear bands are more pronounced in the as-homogenized specimens,whereas dynamic recrystallization is predominantly observed in as-rolled specimens.Fracture morphology analysis reveals that a mixed fracture mechanism is prevalent in the as-homogenized specimen,whereas a ductile fracture mechanism is predominant in the as-rolled specimen.The processing maps indicate that the unstable region is reduced in the as-rolled specimens compared with that in the as-homogenized specimens.The optimal hot working windows for the as-homogenized and as-rolled specimens are determined as 410-440℃/0.14-1 s−1and 380-400℃/0.05-0.29 s−1,respectively.展开更多
The evaluation of the hot workability and applying it to hot rolling process are crucial for the optimization of microstructure of steel.In this study,the hot workability of Q 1100 steel was studied by a combination o...The evaluation of the hot workability and applying it to hot rolling process are crucial for the optimization of microstructure of steel.In this study,the hot workability of Q 1100 steel was studied by a combination of hot compression tests,hot rolling application,and microstructure characterization.The results show that the established recrystallization kinetic models can effectively predict stress variation during hot deformation.The calculated DRX volume fraction is positively related to deformation temperature,and negatively related to the strain rate and Zener-Hollomon parameter.Then the relationship between hot working parameters and microstructure evolution was established by drawing the hot processing maps.The hot processing maps were further applied to hot rolling.When the steel is rolled inside the optimum hot processing window,the macroscopic surface of the steel plate is relatively flat,and its microstructure is mainly composed of continuous dynamic recrystallization(CDRX)grains.The orientation difference between CDRX grains and the adjacent grains is small.When the steel is rolled inside the flow instability region,cracks appear on the macroscopic surface,and the microstructure includes deformed grains and discontinuous dynamic recrystallization(DDRX)grains.The DDRX grains have a large orientation difference with adjacent grains.展开更多
The hot deformation behavior of AA2014forging aluminum alloy was investigated by isothermal compression tests attemperatures of350-480°C and strain rates of0.001-1s-1on a Gleeble-3180simulator.The corresponding m...The hot deformation behavior of AA2014forging aluminum alloy was investigated by isothermal compression tests attemperatures of350-480°C and strain rates of0.001-1s-1on a Gleeble-3180simulator.The corresponding microstructures of thealloys under different deformation conditions were studied using optical microscopy(OM),electron back scattered diffraction(EBSD)and transmission electron microscopy(TEM).The processing maps were constructed with strains of0.1,0.3,0.5and0.7.The results showed that the instability domain was more inclined to occur at strain rates higher than0.1s-1and manifested in theform of local non-uniform deformation.At the strain of0.7,the processing map showed two stability domains:domain I(350-430°C,0.005-0.1s-1)and domain II(450-480°C,0.001-0.05s-1).The predominant softening mechanisms in both of the twodomains were dynamic recovery.Uniform microstructures were obtained in domain I,and an extended recovery occurred in domainII,which would lead to the potential sub-grain boundaries progressively transforming into new high-angle grain boundaries.Theoptimum hot working parameters for the AA2014forging aluminum alloy were determined to be370-420°C and0.008-0.08s-1.展开更多
The high-temperature deformation behavior of Cu-Ni-Si-P alloy was investigated by using the hot compression test in the temperature range of 600-800 ℃ and strain rate of 0.01-5 s-1. The hot deformation activation ene...The high-temperature deformation behavior of Cu-Ni-Si-P alloy was investigated by using the hot compression test in the temperature range of 600-800 ℃ and strain rate of 0.01-5 s-1. The hot deformation activation energy, Q, was calculated and the hot compression constitutive equation was established. The processing maps of the alloy were constructed based on the experiment data and the forging process parameters were then optimized based on the generated maps for forging process determination. The flow behavior and the microstructural mechanism of the alloy were studied. The flow stress of the Cu-Ni-Si-P alloy increases with increasing strain rate and decreasing deformation temperature, and the dynamic recrystallization temperature of alloy is around 700 ℃. The hot deformation activation energy for dynamic recrystallization is determined as 485.6 kJ/mol. The processing maps for the alloy obtained at strains of 0.3 and 0.5 were used to predict the instability regimes occurring at the strain rate more than 1 s-1 and low temperature (〈650 ℃). The optimum range for the alloy hot deformation processing in the safe domain obtained from the processing map is 750-800 ℃ at the strain rate of 0.01-0.1 s i The characteristic microstructures predicted from the processing map agree well with the results of microstructural observations.展开更多
High strength β titanium alloys are widely used in large load bearing components in the aerospace field. At present, large parts are generally formed by die forging. Different initial microstructures and deformation ...High strength β titanium alloys are widely used in large load bearing components in the aerospace field. At present, large parts are generally formed by die forging. Different initial microstructures and deformation process parameters will significantly affect the flow behavior. To precisely control the microstructures, researchers have conducted many studies to analyze the microstructure evolution law and deformation mechanism during hot compression. This review focuses on the microstructure evolution of high strength β titanium alloys during hot deformation, including dynamic recrystallization and dynamic recovery in the single-phase region and the dynamic evolution of the α phase in the two-phase region. Furthermore, the optimal hot processing regions, instability regions,and the relationship between the efficiency of power dissipation and the deformation mechanism in the hot processing map are summarized. Finally, the problems and development direction of using hot processing maps to optimize process parameters are also emphasized.展开更多
High temperature compressive deformation behaviors of as-cast Ti-43Al-4Nb-1.4W-0.6B alloy was investigated at temperatures ranging from 1323 K to 1473 K, and strain rates from 0.001 s-1 to 1 s-1. The results indicated...High temperature compressive deformation behaviors of as-cast Ti-43Al-4Nb-1.4W-0.6B alloy was investigated at temperatures ranging from 1323 K to 1473 K, and strain rates from 0.001 s-1 to 1 s-1. The results indicated that the true stress-true strain curves show a dynamic flow softening behavior. The flow curves after the friction and the temperature compensations were employed to develop constitutive equations. The effects of temperature and the strain rate on the deformation behavior were represented by Zener-Holloman exponential equation. The influence of strain was incorporated in the constitutive analysis by considering the effect of the strain on material constants by a five-order polynomial. A revised model was proposed to describe the relationships among the flow stress, strain rate and temperature and the predicted flow stress curves were in good agreement with experimental results. Appropriate deformation processing parameters were suggested based on the processing map which was constructed from friction and temperature corrected flow curves, determined as 1343 K, 0.02 s-1 and were successfully applied in the canned forging of billets to simulate industrial work condition.展开更多
基金Sichuan Science and Technology Program(2025ZNSFSC1341)Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities(J2022-090,25CAFUC04087)。
摘要The hot compression deformation behavior of Mg-6Zn-1Mn-0.5Ca(ZM61-0.5Ca)and Mg-6Zn-1Mn-2Sn-0.5Ca(ZMT612-0.5Ca)alloys was investigated at deformation temperatures ranging from 250℃to 400℃and strain rates varying from 0.001 s-1 to 1 s-1.The results show that the addition of Sn promotes dynamic recrystallization(DRX),and CaMgSn phases can act as nucleation sites during the compression deformation.Flow stress increases with increasing the strain rate and decreasing the temperature.Both the ZM61-0.5Ca and ZMT612-0.5Ca alloys exhibit obvious DRX characteristics.CaMgSn phases can effectively inhibit dislocation motion with the addition of Sn,thus increasing the peak fl ow stress of the alloy.The addition of Sn increases the hot deformation activation energy of the ZM61-0.5Ca alloy from 199.654 kJ/mol to 276.649 kJ/mol,thus improving the thermal stability of the alloy.For the ZMT612-0.5Ca alloy,the optimal hot deformation parameters are determined to be a deformation temperature range of 350–400℃and a strain rate range of 0.001–0.01 s-1.
基金financial support of the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.52371103)the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities,China(No.2242023K40028)+1 种基金the Open Research Fund of Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Advanced Metallic Materials,China(No.AMM2023B01).financial support of the Research Fund of Shihezi Key Laboratory of AluminumBased Advanced Materials,China(No.2023PT02)financial support of Guangdong Province Science and Technology Major Project,China(No.2021B0301030005)。
摘要Oxide dispersion strengthened(ODS)alloys are extensively used owing to high thermostability and creep strength contributed from uniformly dispersed fine oxides particles.However,the existence of these strengthening particles also deteriorates the processability and it is of great importance to establish accurate processing maps to guide the thermomechanical processes to enhance the formability.In this study,we performed particle swarm optimization-based back propagation artificial neural network model to predict the high temperature flow behavior of 0.25wt%Al2O3 particle-reinforced Cu alloys,and compared the accuracy with that of derived by Arrhenius-type constitutive model and back propagation artificial neural network model.To train these models,we obtained the raw data by fabricating ODS Cu alloys using the internal oxidation and reduction method,and conducting systematic hot compression tests between 400 and800℃with strain rates of 10-2-10 S-1.At last,processing maps for ODS Cu alloys were proposed by combining processing parameters,mechanical behavior,microstructure characterization,and the modeling results achieved a coefficient of determination higher than>99%.
基金financially supported by the National Key R&D Program of China(Grant No.2021YFB3700403).
摘要Uniaxial compression tests and microstructural analyses were performed on a Ni-based wrought superalloy across a temperature range spanning the γ + γ′ duplex-phase region (below the γ′ solvus) and the γ single-phase region (above the γ′ solvus). Analysis of the flow stress curves using an Arrhenius constitutive equation revealed that the activation energy for dynamic recrystallization (DRX) is significantly higher in the duplex-phase region than in the single-phase region. A three-dimensional hot processing map was developed to delineate the influence of temperature, strain rate, and strain on the alloy’s workability. The results also indicated that rapid flow softening at low temperatures (950-980 ℃) and a high strain rate (1 s−1) is attributable to processing instability. During deformation in the γ + γ′ duplex region, both discontinuous dynamic recrystallization (DDRX) and continuous dynamic recrystallization (CDRX) mechanisms were active, with DDRX becoming the dominant mechanism at higher temperatures. Initially, the dispersed γ′ precipitates retard DRX. However, these precipitates subsequently dissolve and re-precipitate along DRX grain boundaries as nano- to micro-scale particles, which effectively pin the boundaries and inhibit grain growth.
基金supported by the Mid-Career Researcher Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea funded by the Ministry of Education,Science and Technology(RS-2024-00350484).
摘要This review consolidates decades of research on hot-deformation processing maps into a single,mechanism-based framework that connects macroscopic stability criteria with high-temperature deformation physics.It traces the evolution of major formulations—including those by Prasad,Murty,and Kim-Jeong—back to their common thermokinetic foundation in creep and dynamic-recrystallization(DRX)kinetics.Through this unified treatment,the review clarifies that power-dissipation efficiency(η)and flow-instability indices are different projections of the same rate-dependent constitutive response,which also dictates transitions between power-law deformation mechanism regimes and the onset of power-law breakdown.The paper is organized to move from theory to application.Early sections reconstruct the mathematical origin and physical meaning ofηand instability functions;middle sections benchmark these criteria across published Mg datasets;and later sections provide practical guidance for constructing reliable maps using physics-constrained regression and uncertainty reporting.The review further clarifies—by distinguishing necessity from sufficiency in the DRX-ηrelationship—why DRX annotations and high-ηdomains frequently coincide without implying causal equivalence.Collectively,these contributions transform processing maps from empirical contour charts into predictive diagnostic tools and offers a reproducible workflow and interpretive hierarchy adaptable to diverse alloy systems and data qualities.
基金funding received from the National Key R&D Program of China(No.2022YFB3705600)。
摘要To obtain the process parameters and the micro structure evolution law of the Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn titanium alloy during high-temperature deformation,thermal simulation tests of high-temperature deformation behavior were conducted on this alloy with an original equiaxedα-βforged microstructure.The test temperatures ranged from 800to 920℃,the strain rates ranged from 0.01 to 10 s-1,and the deformation amount was 60%.A hyperbolic sine flow stress model and a hot processing map for the Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn titanium alloy were established.The high-temperature deformation behavior and micro structure evolution law of the forged alloy were investigated.The research results indicated that,from the stress-strain curves of the titanium alloy,when the strain rate was constant,the flow stress decreased with an increase in temperature;when the deformation temperature was constant,the flow stress increased with an increase in the strain rate.Under certain temperature and strain rate conditions,the flow stress rose rapidly with an increase in strain,reached a peak value,and then gradually decreased.After the strain reached 0.4,it tended to stabilize.By drawing and analyzing a processing map,we found the optimal hot deformation temperature range for the Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn titanium alloy to be between 850 and 920℃,with a strain rate range of 0.01-0.75 s-1.Observations of the metallo graphic micro structure showed that when the alloy was deformed below 830℃,no significant changes occurred in the metallo graphic micro structure.When deformed between 830 and 860℃,the lamellarα-phase exhibited obvious spheroidization,and dynamic recrystallization occurred.With a further increase in temperature,the primaryα-phase rapidly decreased,the secondary striatedαphase increased andβ-phase grains grew.
基金supported by the National basic scientific research projects(JCKY2021204A004)the National Ministries and Commissions Projects(2019-112hbz)the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.52271113).
摘要Ti750s titanium alloy,a novel high-temperature titanium alloy designed for short-term service at elevated temperatures(700–750℃),has previously lacked comprehensive understanding of its hot processing behavior.In this study,the high-temperature deformation behavior and microstructural evolution of the Ti750s alloy were systematically investigated through thermal simulation compression tests conducted at temperatures ranging from 900 to 1070℃and strain rates between 0.1 and 10 s⁻1.A hot processing map was constructed using the dynamic material model to optimize the hot processing parameters.The results indicated that the optimal processing window was between 1040 and 1070℃with a strain rate of 0.1 s⁻1.Processing within the instability region resulted in localized plastic deformation,manifesting as pronounced shear bands and a highly heterogeneous strain distribution;this region should be avoided during hot deformation.Within theα+βphase safety zone characterized by low power dissipation rates between 0.32 and 0.4,the primary deformation mechanism in this region was dynamic recovery(DRV),where the lamellarαgrains underwent deformation and rotation.Conversely,in theα+βphase safety zone with high-power dissipation rates between 0.45 and 0.52,dynamic spheroidization of theαphase and dynamic recrystallization(DRX)of theβphase occurred concurrently.In theβphase safety zone with low power dissipation rates between 0.32 and 0.51,the primary deformation mechanism consisted of DRV ofβgrains,accompanied by limited DRX.However,in theβphase safety zone with high-power dissipation rates exceeding 0.56,both DRV and DRX ofβgrains took place,resulted in a significant increase in the size and number of recrystallized grains compared to those observed under low power dissipation conditions.
基金the National Key Research and Development Program of China(No.2016YFB0700505)the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.51571020).
摘要The hot deformation behavior of GH3230 superalloy under selected deformation conditions ranging from 950 to 1150℃with strain rates ranging from 0.01 to 10 s–1was studied through isothermal hot compression experiments.Based on the obtained flow stresses,a strain-compensated Arrhenius-type model was developed for the description of hot deformation behavior,and the consistency of the predicted flow stresses with the experimental values confirms the accuracy of the developed model.Furthermore,the processing maps were constructed and classified into the instability domain,low-dissipation stability domain and high-dissipation stability domain in accordance with the dynamic material model and the instability criterion.Microstructure observations indicated that the instability domain exhibits the adiabatic shear bands formation,and the low-power dissipation domain exhibits partial dynamic recrystallization(DRX),with the temperature increase/strain rate decrease being favorable for the DRX.The high-dissipation stability domain was occupied by uniformly fine equiaxed grains,and was identified as the optimal processing window,which corresponds to the deformation conditions at 1070–1150℃ with strain rates ranging from 0.01 to 0.15 s–1.Moreover,various DRX mechanisms are observed to occur during the hot deformation,which include the discontinuous dynamic recrystallization,characterized by nucleation at bulged boundaries,the continuous dynamic recrystallization with subgrain progressive rotation and the particle stimulated nucleation mechanism with stimulated nucleation of carbide particles.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(Nos.52271109 and 52401162)Natural Science Foundation of Shanxi(Nos.202403021211064 and 202403011212003)the Major Special Plan for Science and Technology in Shanxi Province(No.202201050201012).
摘要The spherical Ti particle(Tip)reinforced Mg-5Zn-0.5Ca(Tip/ZX50)composite was prepared via the semisolid stirring casting process and the effects of Tipon the hot deformation and hot processing behavior of matrix alloy were investigated through uniaxial hot compression testing.The results indicate that a particle deformation zone(PDZ)forms around the Tipwith the deformation of the Tip/ZX50 composite,which is propitious to the dynamic recrystallization(DRX)of the matrix alloy.The range of the PDZ and the promoting effect of the Tipon DRXed nucleation are inversely related to the deformation degree of the Tip.Moreover,the deformation of Tipalleviates the high stress in the matrix alloy during deformation,expanding the processing range and reducing the average deformation activation energy of the matrix alloy.Notably,the minimum processing temperature(493 K)of the Tip/ZX50 composite is significantly lower than that of hardened particle reinforced magnesium matrix composites.The hot deformation mechanism of the Tip/ZX50 composite is dislocation climb controlled by both lattice diffusion and pipe diffusion.
基金financially supported by the Science and Technology Program Project of Gansu Province(No.24ZD13GA018)the National Natural Science Foundation of China(Nos.12404230 and 52061027)+1 种基金Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China(No.LY23E010002)Lanzhou Youth Science and Technology Talent Innovation Project(No.2023-QN-91)
摘要Bacterial and mycoplasma infections pose a severe hazard to human life and property.These necessitate the development of antibacterial metallic materials that can be produced efficiently in large quantities.In this study,an(Fe63.3Mn14Si9.1Cr9.8C3.8)86Cu12Ag2medium-entropy alloy(MEA)consisting of in situ FCC1(austenite)and FCC2(Cu–Ag-rich)phases was prepared.It displayed a yield strength of 1100 MPa,fracture strength of 1921 MPa,and compressive plasticity of 27%at room temperature.This is attributed to the low stacking fault energy(3.7 m J m-2)inducing strong transformation-induced plasticity(TRIP),twinning-induced plasticity(TWIP),and lattice distortion.The alloy contained nano-and microscale antibacterial phases.This enabled it to achieve an antimicrobial efficiency higher than 99.9%against E.coli and S.aureus after6 h of exposure.The hot working efficiency makes it preferable for mass production with critical process parameters.A constitutive model was established using the Arrhenius equation to validate the applicability of the dynamic materials model(DMM).Subsequently,the hot processing map of the medium-entropy alloy was established based on the DMM.The optimal processing parameters were determined as 800℃with strain rates of10–1–10–2s-1.The low stacking fault energy ensures that dynamic recrystallization is the primary softening mechanism in the“safe”region.Finally,the density of states(DOS)of the MEA(determined by first-principles calculations)was significantly lower(162.1 eV)than those of Ni and Fe.This indicated a strong high-temperature stability.The DOS increased marginally with an increase in deformation.
摘要Using a Gleeble 3500 thermomechanical simulation testing machine,the hot deformation characteristics of 23Cr-8Ni steel were investigated under the conditions of 1000–1250℃ and 0.001‒10 s−1.Furthermore,the microstructure of the characterization region was analyzed to investigate the recrystallization behavior of 23Cr-8Ni steel.Results show that as the strain rate decreases and the deformation temperature increases,the flow stress decreases.Because the softening phenomenon occurs after the peak stress,the flow stress decreases.The stress index(n)is 4.28,and the thermal deformation activation energy(Q)is 588878 J/mol.Processing map is established,and an optimal thermal processing range of 0.001–0.1 s−1 and 1000–1200℃ is achieved,therefore greatly promoting the yield rate.
基金financially supported by the Science and Engineering Research Board(SERB),Government of India(No.EEQ/2020/000306)。
摘要The current study investigates the hot deformation behavior of Al-12Ce-0.4Sc alloy with an isothermal hot compression test at300-450°C/0.001-1s-1.Results show that the flow curves exhibit typical dynamic recovery(DRV)and slight flow-softening behavior.Additionally,the flow curves overlap owing to the dynamic strain aging(DSA)phenomenon at 400-450°C/0.01-0.1 s-1.Two different constitutive models were developed using the experimental data for hot deformation:(i)strain-compensated Arrhenius model(Method I)and(ii)logistic regression model(MethodⅡ).The average stress exponent(n)and apparent activation energy(Q)are 14.25 and 209.58 k J·mol-1,respectively.The hot-working processing map shows that the optimal processing condition is 400°C/1 s-1,and the maximum power dissipation efficiency is 22%.Stable and unstable domains indicated by the processing map were correlated using scanning electron microscopy(SEM),transmission electron microscopy(TEM),and electron backscatter diffraction(EBSD)characterization techniques.The unstable domains are primarily associated with pro-eutectic Al11Ce3intermetallic fracture and interfacial cracks betweenα-Al and pro-eutectic Al11Ce3.
摘要The hot deformation characteristics of induction quenched Zr-Sn-Nb-Fe-Cr alloy forged rod in the temperature range of 600–900°C and strain rate range of 0.001–1 s-1were studied by Gleeble3800 uniaxial hot compression experiment.The results show that the flow stress decreases with the decrease in strain rate and the increase in deformation temperature in the true stress-true strain curve of Zr-Sn-Nb-Fe-Cr alloy forged rod.Moreover,the hot deformation characteristics of the material can be described by the hyperbolic sine constitutive equation.Under the experimental conditions,the average thermal activation energy(Q)of the alloy was 412.9105 kJ/mol.The microstructure analysis of the processing map and the sample after hot compression shows that the optimum hot working parameters of the alloy are 795–900°C,0.001–0.0068 s-1,at the deformation temperature of 600–900°C,and the strain rate of 0.001–1 s-1.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(NSFC)(Grant No.51901078)the Central Guidance for Local Scientific and Technological Development Funding Project(Grant No.236Z1003G)+3 种基金the Science and Technology Plan Project of Tangshan City(Grant No.24130207C)the Natural Science Foundation of Hebei Province(Grant No.E2022209070)the High-level Talent Project of Hebei(Grant No.E2019100007)the Open Project Program of Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Modern Metallurgy Technology(Grant No.2024YJKF02).
摘要This study systematically investigates the hot deformation behavior and microstructural evolution of CoNiV medium-entropy alloy(MEA)in the temperature range of 950-1100℃ and strain rates of 0.001-1 s-1.The Arrhenius model and machine learning model were developed to forecast flow stresses at various conditions.The predictive capability of both models was assessed using the coefficients of determination(R2),average absolute relative error(AARE),and root mean square error(RMSE).The findings show that the osprey optimization algorithm convolutional neural network(OOA-CNN)model outperforms the Arrhenius model,achieving a high R2 value of 0.99959 and lower AARE and RMSE values.The flow stress that the OOA-CNN model predicted was used to generate power dissipation maps and instability maps under different strains.Finally,combining the processing map and microstructure characterization,the ideal processing domain was identified as 1100℃ at strain rates of 0.01-0.1 s-1.This study provided key insights into optimizing the hot working process of CoNiV MEA.
基金Open Fund Project of Chongqing Institute of Materials Co.,Ltd(CMRI-KFJJ-202401)。
摘要The hot deformation behavior of platinum was investigated through hot compression experiments.A constitutive equation for the prediction of the flow behavior of platinum was derived from analysis of stress-strain curves.Using the constitutive equation,the peak stress of platinum during hot working was calculated across varying temperatures and strain rates.Results show that the predicted values have strong agreement with experimental results.Electron backscatter diffraction analysis further reveals the thermal deformation mechanisms under distinct conditions within the safe processing region.The optimal processing parameters are identified as deformation temperatures of 860-910 K and strain rates of 0.01-0.1 s−1.Discontinuous yielding observed at elevated strain rates is attributed to the multiplication and movement of the mobile dislocations at grain boundaries.
摘要To investigate the influence of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy with as-homogenized and as-rolled initial microstructures on the tensile flow behavior,isothermal tensile tests were conducted on a GLEEBLE-3500 isothermal simulator at temperatures of 380-440℃and strain rates of 0.05-1 s−1.The Johnson-Cook model,Hensel-Spittel model,strain-compensated Arrhenius model,and critical fracture strain model were established.Results show that through the evaluation of the models using the correlation coefficient(R)and the average absolute relative error,the strain-compensated Arrhenius model can represent the flow behavior of the alloy more accurately.Shear bands are more pronounced in the as-homogenized specimens,whereas dynamic recrystallization is predominantly observed in as-rolled specimens.Fracture morphology analysis reveals that a mixed fracture mechanism is prevalent in the as-homogenized specimen,whereas a ductile fracture mechanism is predominant in the as-rolled specimen.The processing maps indicate that the unstable region is reduced in the as-rolled specimens compared with that in the as-homogenized specimens.The optimal hot working windows for the as-homogenized and as-rolled specimens are determined as 410-440℃/0.14-1 s−1and 380-400℃/0.05-0.29 s−1,respectively.
基金Project(2018XK2301)supported by the Chang-Zhu-Tan National Independent Innovation Demonstration Zone Special Program,China。
摘要The evaluation of the hot workability and applying it to hot rolling process are crucial for the optimization of microstructure of steel.In this study,the hot workability of Q 1100 steel was studied by a combination of hot compression tests,hot rolling application,and microstructure characterization.The results show that the established recrystallization kinetic models can effectively predict stress variation during hot deformation.The calculated DRX volume fraction is positively related to deformation temperature,and negatively related to the strain rate and Zener-Hollomon parameter.Then the relationship between hot working parameters and microstructure evolution was established by drawing the hot processing maps.The hot processing maps were further applied to hot rolling.When the steel is rolled inside the optimum hot processing window,the macroscopic surface of the steel plate is relatively flat,and its microstructure is mainly composed of continuous dynamic recrystallization(CDRX)grains.The orientation difference between CDRX grains and the adjacent grains is small.When the steel is rolled inside the flow instability region,cracks appear on the macroscopic surface,and the microstructure includes deformed grains and discontinuous dynamic recrystallization(DDRX)grains.The DDRX grains have a large orientation difference with adjacent grains.
基金Project(51301209) supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
摘要The hot deformation behavior of AA2014forging aluminum alloy was investigated by isothermal compression tests attemperatures of350-480°C and strain rates of0.001-1s-1on a Gleeble-3180simulator.The corresponding microstructures of thealloys under different deformation conditions were studied using optical microscopy(OM),electron back scattered diffraction(EBSD)and transmission electron microscopy(TEM).The processing maps were constructed with strains of0.1,0.3,0.5and0.7.The results showed that the instability domain was more inclined to occur at strain rates higher than0.1s-1and manifested in theform of local non-uniform deformation.At the strain of0.7,the processing map showed two stability domains:domain I(350-430°C,0.005-0.1s-1)and domain II(450-480°C,0.001-0.05s-1).The predominant softening mechanisms in both of the twodomains were dynamic recovery.Uniform microstructures were obtained in domain I,and an extended recovery occurred in domainII,which would lead to the potential sub-grain boundaries progressively transforming into new high-angle grain boundaries.Theoptimum hot working parameters for the AA2014forging aluminum alloy were determined to be370-420°C and0.008-0.08s-1.
基金Project(51101052) supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
摘要The high-temperature deformation behavior of Cu-Ni-Si-P alloy was investigated by using the hot compression test in the temperature range of 600-800 ℃ and strain rate of 0.01-5 s-1. The hot deformation activation energy, Q, was calculated and the hot compression constitutive equation was established. The processing maps of the alloy were constructed based on the experiment data and the forging process parameters were then optimized based on the generated maps for forging process determination. The flow behavior and the microstructural mechanism of the alloy were studied. The flow stress of the Cu-Ni-Si-P alloy increases with increasing strain rate and decreasing deformation temperature, and the dynamic recrystallization temperature of alloy is around 700 ℃. The hot deformation activation energy for dynamic recrystallization is determined as 485.6 kJ/mol. The processing maps for the alloy obtained at strains of 0.3 and 0.5 were used to predict the instability regimes occurring at the strain rate more than 1 s-1 and low temperature (〈650 ℃). The optimum range for the alloy hot deformation processing in the safe domain obtained from the processing map is 750-800 ℃ at the strain rate of 0.01-0.1 s i The characteristic microstructures predicted from the processing map agree well with the results of microstructural observations.
基金supported by the Project of National Key Laboratory for Precision Hot Processing of Metals, Harbin Institute of Technology, China (No. 6142909190207)Shaanxi Key Laboratory of High-performance Precision Forming Technology and Equipment (SKL-HPFTE), China (No. PETE-2019-KF-01)。
摘要High strength β titanium alloys are widely used in large load bearing components in the aerospace field. At present, large parts are generally formed by die forging. Different initial microstructures and deformation process parameters will significantly affect the flow behavior. To precisely control the microstructures, researchers have conducted many studies to analyze the microstructure evolution law and deformation mechanism during hot compression. This review focuses on the microstructure evolution of high strength β titanium alloys during hot deformation, including dynamic recrystallization and dynamic recovery in the single-phase region and the dynamic evolution of the α phase in the two-phase region. Furthermore, the optimal hot processing regions, instability regions,and the relationship between the efficiency of power dissipation and the deformation mechanism in the hot processing map are summarized. Finally, the problems and development direction of using hot processing maps to optimize process parameters are also emphasized.
基金Project(2011CB605505)supported by the National Key Fundamental Research Development Project of ChinaProjects(51301204,51174233)supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of ChinaProject(2011JQ002)supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of China
摘要High temperature compressive deformation behaviors of as-cast Ti-43Al-4Nb-1.4W-0.6B alloy was investigated at temperatures ranging from 1323 K to 1473 K, and strain rates from 0.001 s-1 to 1 s-1. The results indicated that the true stress-true strain curves show a dynamic flow softening behavior. The flow curves after the friction and the temperature compensations were employed to develop constitutive equations. The effects of temperature and the strain rate on the deformation behavior were represented by Zener-Holloman exponential equation. The influence of strain was incorporated in the constitutive analysis by considering the effect of the strain on material constants by a five-order polynomial. A revised model was proposed to describe the relationships among the flow stress, strain rate and temperature and the predicted flow stress curves were in good agreement with experimental results. Appropriate deformation processing parameters were suggested based on the processing map which was constructed from friction and temperature corrected flow curves, determined as 1343 K, 0.02 s-1 and were successfully applied in the canned forging of billets to simulate industrial work condition.