The ongoing expansion of the Internet of Things(IoT)fundamentally alters industrial and economic paradigms by integrating intelligent nodes throughout operational frameworks.Nonetheless,vulnerabilities surrounding sys...The ongoing expansion of the Internet of Things(IoT)fundamentally alters industrial and economic paradigms by integrating intelligent nodes throughout operational frameworks.Nonetheless,vulnerabilities surrounding system integrity and data confidentiality present major bottlenecks to widespread adoption,a dilemma severely intensified by impending quantum computing capabilities.Defending these networks demands the integration of post-quantum cryptographic primitives;yet,the severe hardware constraints characterizing peripheral IoT components complicate practical deployment.Quantum-resistant lattice cryptography offers a highly promising pathway to overcome these limitations,largely because the foundational security and throughput of these protocols hinge on polynomial multiplication performance.Consequently,optimizing the computational speed and architectural efficiency of this specific algebraic operation drastically enhances the viability of lattice-reliant defense mechanisms.To address this need,this study develops a specialized systolic array architecture engineered explicitly as an underlying arithmetic engine for polynomial multiplication within the Binary Ring Learning With Errors(BRLWE)protocol.Tailored for low-power hardware security modules(HSMs)situated at the network edge,the proposed circuit achieves rapid modular multiplication while ensuring a highly compact silicon footprint.By aligning the hardware layout with the precise algebraic properties of the BRLWE variation,this approach delivers a scalable,optimized framework for constructing secure IoT networks capable of resisting quantum adversaries,thereby acting as a pivotal building block for resilient industrial edge protection.Additionally,this study aligns with UN Sustainable Development Goals 8 and 9 by fostering digital trust in emerging technological systems and supporting the safe,adaptive growth of modern electronic economies.展开更多
Post-quantum transport layer security(PQ-TLS)is capable of effectively defending against quantum threats to current network communications,whereas its larger public key and certificate sizes as well as higher computat...Post-quantum transport layer security(PQ-TLS)is capable of effectively defending against quantum threats to current network communications,whereas its larger public key and certificate sizes as well as higher computational overhead may result in a significant performance reduction compared with conventional TLS.In this paper,we present a systematic evaluation of PQ-TLS performance across diverse deployment scenarios to address the following critical research questions.(1)What is the performance behavior of PQ-TLS across different TLS modes?(2)How does PQ-TLS perform across varying client scales?(3)Which network topology is most suitable for PQ-TLS?(4)How does PQ-TLS perform on personal computers(PCs)compared to embedded IoT devices?To the best of our knowledge,this is the first work to comprehensively address these issues,offering implementers some insights into PQ-TLS performance and guidance for optimizing it across diverse scenarios.展开更多
The advent of quantum computers and algorithms challenges the semantic security of symmetric and asymmetric cryptosystems. Thus, the implementation of new cryptographic primitives is essential. They must follow the br...The advent of quantum computers and algorithms challenges the semantic security of symmetric and asymmetric cryptosystems. Thus, the implementation of new cryptographic primitives is essential. They must follow the breakthroughs and properties of quantum calculators which make vulnerable existing cryptosystems. In this paper, we propose a random number generation model based on evaluation of the thermal noise power of the volume elements of an electronic system with a volume of 58.83 cm3. We prove through the sampling of the temperature of each volume element that it is difficult for an attacker to carry out an exploit. In 12 seconds, we generate for 7 volume elements, a stream of randomly generated keys of 187 digits that will be transmitted from source to destination through the properties of quantum cryptography.展开更多
In 1994,P.Shor discovered quantum algorithms that can break both the RSA cryptosystem and the ElGamal cryptosystem.In 2007,a Canadian company D-Wave demonstrated the first quantum computer.These events and quick furth...In 1994,P.Shor discovered quantum algorithms that can break both the RSA cryptosystem and the ElGamal cryptosystem.In 2007,a Canadian company D-Wave demonstrated the first quantum computer.These events and quick further developments have brought a crisis to secret communication.In 2022,the National Institute of Standards and Technology(NIST)announced 4 candidates—CRYSTALS-Kyber,CRYSTALS-Dilithium,Falcon,and Sphincs+—for post-quantum cryptography standards.The first 3 are based on lattice theory and the last on Hash functions.In 2024,NIST announced 3 standards:FIPS 203 based on CRYSTALS-Kyber,FIPS 204 based on CRYSTALS-Dilithium,and FIPS 205 based on Sphincs+.The fourth standard based on Falcon is on the way.It is well known that the security of the lattice-based cryptosystems relies on the hardness of the shortest vector problem(SVP),the closest vector problem(CVP),and their generalizations.In fact,the SVP is a ball packing problem and the CVP is a ball covering problem.Furthermore,both SVP and CVP are equivalent to arithmetic problems for positive definite quadratic forms.There are several books and survey papers dealing with the computational complexity of the lattice-based cryptography for classical computers.However,there is no review article to demonstrate the mathematical foundation of the complexity theory.This paper will briefly introduce post-quantum cryptography and demonstrate its mathematical roots in ball packing,ball covering,and positive definite quadratic forms.展开更多
The advent of quantum computing poses a significant challenge to traditional cryptographic protocols,particularly those used in SecureMultiparty Computation(MPC),a fundamental cryptographic primitive for privacypreser...The advent of quantum computing poses a significant challenge to traditional cryptographic protocols,particularly those used in SecureMultiparty Computation(MPC),a fundamental cryptographic primitive for privacypreserving computation.Classical MPC relies on cryptographic techniques such as homomorphic encryption,secret sharing,and oblivious transfer,which may become vulnerable in the post-quantum era due to the computational power of quantum adversaries.This study presents a review of 140 peer-reviewed articles published between 2000 and 2025 that used different databases like MDPI,IEEE Explore,Springer,and Elsevier,examining the applications,types,and security issues with the solution of Quantum computing in different fields.This review explores the impact of quantum computing on MPC security,assesses emerging quantum-resistant MPC protocols,and examines hybrid classicalquantum approaches aimed at mitigating quantum threats.We analyze the role of Quantum Key Distribution(QKD),post-quantum cryptography(PQC),and quantum homomorphic encryption in securing multiparty computations.Additionally,we discuss the challenges of scalability,computational efficiency,and practical deployment of quantumsecure MPC frameworks in real-world applications such as privacy-preserving AI,secure blockchain transactions,and confidential data analysis.This review provides insights into the future research directions and open challenges in ensuring secure,scalable,and quantum-resistant multiparty computation.展开更多
TheIndustrial Internet of Things(IIoT)has emerged as a cornerstone of Industry 4.0,enabling large-scale automation and data-driven decision-making across factories,supply chains,and critical infrastructures.However,th...TheIndustrial Internet of Things(IIoT)has emerged as a cornerstone of Industry 4.0,enabling large-scale automation and data-driven decision-making across factories,supply chains,and critical infrastructures.However,the massive interconnection of resource-constrained devices also amplifies the risks of eavesdropping,data tampering,and device impersonation.While digital signatures are indispensable for ensuring authenticity and non-repudiation,conventional schemes such as RSA and ECCare vulnerable to quantumalgorithms,jeopardizing long-termtrust in IIoT deployments.This study proposes a lightweight,stateless,hash-based signature scheme that achieves post-quantum security while addressing the stringent efficiency demands of IIoT.The design introduces two key optimizations:(1)Forest ofRandomSubsets(FORS)onDemand,where subset secret keys are generated dynamically via a PseudoRandom Function(PRF),thereby minimizing storage overhead and eliminating key-reuse risks;and(2)Winternitz One-Time Signature Plus(WOTS+)partial hash-chain caching,which precomputes intermediate hash values at edge gateways,reducing device-side computations,latency,and energy consumption.The architecture integrates a multi-layerMerkle authentication tree(Merkle tree)and role-based delegation across sensors,gateways,and a Signature Authority Center(SAC),supporting scalable cross-site deployment and key rotation.Froma theoretical perspective,we establish a formal(Existential Unforgeability under Chosen Message Attack)EUF-CMA security proof using a game-based reduction framework.The proof demonstrates that any successful forgerymust reduce to breaking the underlying assumptions of PRF indistinguishability,(second)preimage resistance,or collision resistance,thus quantifying adversarial advantage and ensuring unforgeability.On the implementation side,our design achieves a balanced trade-off between postquantum security and lightweight performance,offering concrete deployment guidelines for real-time industrial systems.In summary,the proposed method contributes both practical system design and formal security guarantees,providing IIoT with a deployable signature substrate that enhances resilience against quantum-era threats and supports future extensions such as device attestation,group signatures,and anomaly detection.展开更多
With the rapid advancement of ICT and IoT technologies,the integration of Edge and Fog Computing has become essential to meet the increasing demands for real-time data processing and network efficiency.However,these t...With the rapid advancement of ICT and IoT technologies,the integration of Edge and Fog Computing has become essential to meet the increasing demands for real-time data processing and network efficiency.However,these technologies face critical security challenges,exacerbated by the emergence of quantum computing,which threatens traditional encryption methods.The rise in cyber-attacks targeting IoT and Edge/Fog networks underscores the need for robust,quantum-resistant security solutions.To address these challenges,researchers are focusing on Quantum Key Distribution and Post-Quantum Cryptography,which utilize quantum-resistant algorithms and the principles of quantum mechanics to ensure data confidentiality and integrity.This paper reviews the current security practices in IoT and Edge/Fog environments,explores the latest advancements in QKD and PQC technologies,and discusses their integration into distributed computing systems.Additionally,this paper proposes an enhanced QKD protocol combining the Cascade protocol and Kyber algorithm to address existing limitations.Finally,we highlight future research directions aimed at improving the scalability,efficiency,and practicality of QKD and PQC for securing IoT and Edge/Fog networks against evolving quantum threats.展开更多
As quantum computing continues to advance,traditional cryptographic methods are increasingly challenged,particularly when it comes to securing critical systems like Supervisory Control andData Acquisition(SCADA)system...As quantum computing continues to advance,traditional cryptographic methods are increasingly challenged,particularly when it comes to securing critical systems like Supervisory Control andData Acquisition(SCADA)systems.These systems are essential for monitoring and controlling industrial operations,making their security paramount.A key threat arises from Shor’s algorithm,a powerful quantum computing tool that can compromise current hash functions,leading to significant concerns about data integrity and confidentiality.To tackle these issues,this article introduces a novel Quantum-Resistant Hash Algorithm(QRHA)known as the Modular Hash Learning Algorithm(MHLA).This algorithm is meticulously crafted to withstand potential quantum attacks by incorporating advanced mathematical and algorithmic techniques,enhancing its overall security framework.Our research delves into the effectiveness ofMHLA in defending against both traditional and quantum-based threats,with a particular emphasis on its resilience to Shor’s algorithm.The findings from our study demonstrate that MHLA significantly enhances the security of SCADA systems in the context of quantum technology.By ensuring that sensitive data remains protected and confidential,MHLA not only fortifies individual systems but also contributes to the broader efforts of safeguarding industrial and infrastructure control systems against future quantumthreats.Our evaluation demonstrates that MHLA improves security by 38%against quantumattack simulations compared to traditional hash functionswhilemaintaining a computational efficiency ofO(m⋅n⋅k+v+n).The algorithm achieved a 98%success rate in detecting data tampering during integrity testing.These findings underline MHLA’s effectiveness in enhancing SCADA system security amidst evolving quantum technologies.This research represents a crucial step toward developing more secure cryptographic systems that can adapt to the rapidly changing technological landscape,ultimately ensuring the reliability and integrity of critical infrastructure in an era where quantum computing poses a growing risk.展开更多
With the accelerated growth of the Internet of Things(IoT),real-time data processing on edge devices is increasingly important for reducing overhead and enhancing security by keeping sensitive data local.Since these d...With the accelerated growth of the Internet of Things(IoT),real-time data processing on edge devices is increasingly important for reducing overhead and enhancing security by keeping sensitive data local.Since these devices often handle personal information under limited resources,cryptographic algorithms must be executed efficiently.Their computational characteristics strongly affect system performance,making it necessary to analyze resource impact and predict usage under diverse configurations.In this paper,we analyze the phase-level resource usage of AES variants,ChaCha20,ECC,and RSA on an edge device and develop a prediction model.We apply these algorithms under varying parallelism levels and execution strategies across key generation,encryption,and decryption phases.Based on the analysis,we train a unified Random Forest model using execution context and temporal features,achieving R2 values up to 0.994 for power and 0.988 for temperature.Furthermore,the model maintains practical predictive performance even for cryptographic algorithms not included during training,demonstrating its ability to generalize across distinct computational characteristics.Our proposed approach reveals how execution characteristics and resource usage interacts,supporting proactive resource planning and efficient deployment of cryptographic workloads on edge devices.As our approach is grounded in phase-level computational characteristics rather than in any single algorithm,it provides generalizable insights that can be extended to a broader range of cryptographic algorithms that exhibit comparable phase-level execution patterns and to heterogeneous edge architectures.展开更多
Ensuring information security in the quantum era is a growing challenge due to advancements in cryptographic attacks and the emergence of quantum computing.To address these concerns,this paper presents the mathematica...Ensuring information security in the quantum era is a growing challenge due to advancements in cryptographic attacks and the emergence of quantum computing.To address these concerns,this paper presents the mathematical and computer modeling of a novel two-dimensional(2D)chaotic system for secure key generation in quantum image encryption(QIE).The proposed map employs trigonometric perturbations in conjunction with rational-saturation functions and hence,named as Trigonometric-Rational-Saturation(TRS)map.Through rigorous mathematical analysis and computational simulations,the map is extensively evaluated for bifurcation behaviour,chaotic trajectories,and Lyapunov exponents.The security evaluation validates the map’s non-linearity,unpredictability,and sensitive dependence on initial conditions.In addition,the proposed TRS map has further been tested by integrating it in a QIE scheme.The QIE scheme first quantum-encodes the classic image using the Novel Enhanced Quantum Representation(NEQR)technique,the TRS map is used for the generation of secure diffusion key,which is XOR-ed with the quantum-ready image to obtain the encrypted images.The security evaluation of the QIE scheme demonstrates superior security of the encrypted images in terms of statistical security attacks and also against Differential attacks.The encrypted images exhibit zero correlation and maximum entropy with demonstrating strong resilience due to 99.62%and 33.47%results for Number of Pixels Change Rate(NPCR)and Unified Average Changing Intensity(UACI).The results validate the effectiveness of TRS-based quantum encryption scheme in securing digital images against emerging quantum threats,making it suitable for secure image encryption in IoT and edge-based applications.展开更多
Traditional chaotic maps struggle with narrow chaotic ranges and inefficiencies,limiting their use for lightweight,secure image encryption in resource-constrained Wireless Sensor Networks(WSNs).We propose the SPCM,a n...Traditional chaotic maps struggle with narrow chaotic ranges and inefficiencies,limiting their use for lightweight,secure image encryption in resource-constrained Wireless Sensor Networks(WSNs).We propose the SPCM,a novel one-dimensional discontinuous chaotic system integrating polynomial and sine functions,leveraging a piecewise function to achieve a broad chaotic range()and a high Lyapunov exponent(5.04).Validated through nine benchmarks,including standard randomness tests,Diehard tests,and Shannon entropy(3.883),SPCM demonstrates superior randomness and high sensitivity to initial conditions.Applied to image encryption,SPCM achieves 0.152582 s(39%faster than some techniques)and 433.42 KB/s throughput(134%higher than some techniques),setting new benchmarks for chaotic map-based methods in WSNs.Chaos-based permutation and exclusive or(XOR)diffusion yield near-zero correlation in encrypted images,ensuring strong resistance to Statistical Attacks(SA)and accurate recovery.SPCM also exhibits a strong avalanche effect(bit difference),making it an efficient,secure solution for WSNs in domains like healthcare and smart cities.展开更多
Cloud environments are essential for modern computing,but are increasingly vulnerable to Side-Channel Attacks(SCAs),which exploit indirect information to compromise sensitive data.To address this critical challenge,we...Cloud environments are essential for modern computing,but are increasingly vulnerable to Side-Channel Attacks(SCAs),which exploit indirect information to compromise sensitive data.To address this critical challenge,we propose SecureCons Framework(SCF),a novel consensus-based cryptographic framework designed to enhance resilience against SCAs in cloud environments.SCF integrates a dual-layer approach combining lightweight cryptographic algorithms with a blockchain-inspired consensus mechanism to secure data exchanges and thwart potential side-channel exploits.The framework includes adaptive anomaly detection models,cryptographic obfuscation techniques,and real-time monitoring to identify and mitigate vulnerabilities proactively.Experimental evaluations demonstrate the framework's robustness,achieving over 95%resilience against advanced SCAs with minimal computational overhead.SCF provides a scalable,secure,and efficient solution,setting a new benchmark for side-channel attack mitigation in cloud ecosystems.展开更多
Quantum Key Distribution(QKD)ensures secure key establishment through the principles of quantum mechanics;however,its effectiveness in practice hinges on dependable identity verification via classical channels during ...Quantum Key Distribution(QKD)ensures secure key establishment through the principles of quantum mechanics;however,its effectiveness in practice hinges on dependable identity verification via classical channels during the post-processing phase.Current QKD implementations typically depend on pre-existing symmetric-key authentication,which suffers from limited scalability and complicated key management in extensive networks.Authentication methods utilizing post-quantum cryptography(PQC)signatures,based on complex mathematical assumptions,introduce extra and uncertain security dependencies,potentially compromising the security model integrity that QKD aims to maintain.This paper explores the application of hash-based signatures(HBS)for identity verification in the post-processing of QKD.HBS methods derive their security from cryptographic hash functions,which are integral to QKD protocols,allowing for scalable public-key-style authentication without the need for new computational assumptions.A detailed authentication framework is proposed,incorporating HBS-based verification into all essential phases of QKD post-processing,such as mutual certificate validation,basis sifting,parameter estimation,error correction verification,and privacy amplification.Security assessments indicate that the suggested framework maintains the security model integrity of QKD by relying cryptographically solely on the collision resistance of hash functions—without introducing new computational assumptions.At the system deployment level,it adheres to standard PKI trust assumptions which are necessary for public-key-style authentication and consistent with practical QKD network operations.Additionally,system-level evaluations affirm the scalability and practical applicability of HBS-based authentication,while also addressing the operational trade-offs among various HBS approaches in realistic QKD deployment contexts.展开更多
The rapid evolution of quantum computing poses a fundamental challenge to classical public-key cryptosystems,accelerating the adoption of lattice-based post-quantum cryptography in large-scale digital infrastructures,...The rapid evolution of quantum computing poses a fundamental challenge to classical public-key cryptosystems,accelerating the adoption of lattice-based post-quantum cryptography in large-scale digital infrastructures,including Future Mobile Internet Technologies(FMIT)and their convergence applications(FMIT-CA).As lattice-based cryptography is expected to play an important role in such environments,accurate hardness estimation and parameter assessment of underlying lattice problems have become increasingly important.Since the security of these cryptographic schemes is closely related to the computational hardness of the Shortest Vector Problem(SVP),improving practical SVP-solving techniques contributes indirectly to the security evaluation of such systems.Among practical SVP solvers,sieve-based approaches such as the General Sieve Kernel(G6K)achieve state-of-the-art performance,yet their exponential complexity and resource demands constrain scalability in high-dimensional settings.In this work,we propose an improved version of the hybrid algorithm ENUM-Sieve Reduction(ESR)proposed by Toda et al.in ProvSec 2025.We refer to our proposal as ENUM-Sieve Reduction 2.0(ESR 2.0).It integrates Block Korkine-Zolotarev 2.0(BKZ 2.0)and extreme-pruning enumeration into the reduction pipeline and introduces a unimodular-matrix-based strategy for partial basis generation.Experimental results suggest that these enhancements enable stronger parameter configurations and more efficient execution in higher dimensions under realistic computational constraints.Experimental evaluations on prime cyclotomic ideal lattices demonstrate the practical usefulness of ESR 2.0 produces vectors equal to or shorter than those obtained by G6K in 75%of the tested instances for dimensions ranging from 96 to 130.Compared with ESR,ESR 2.0 achieves the same or shorter vectors in 62.5%of the tested instances.Although ESR 2.0 requires longer CPU time due to additional enumeration steps,GPU time and peak memory usage remain comparable to those of G6K and ESR.Furthermore,ESR 2.0 renewed record norms in the TU Darmstadt Ideal Lattice Challenge for dimensions 112,126,136,148 and 156.These results indicate the usability of ESR 2.0,providing a competitive and practical framework for high-dimensional SVP solving.The proposed improvements contribute to a more accurate assessment of lattice hardness,which is essential for secure parameter selection in post-quantum cryptographic systems supporting future mobile and converged digital environments.展开更多
The standardization of the Module-Lattice-Based Key-Encapsulation Mechanism(ML-KEM,FIPS 203)creates urgent demand for efficient post-quantum cryptography on resource-constrained devices.In such deployments,twiddle-fac...The standardization of the Module-Lattice-Based Key-Encapsulation Mechanism(ML-KEM,FIPS 203)creates urgent demand for efficient post-quantum cryptography on resource-constrained devices.In such deployments,twiddle-factor management in the Number Theoretic Transform(NTT)induces a practical trade-off:full tables reduce latency but consume read-only memory(ROM),while on-the-fly generation reduces ROM but increases arithmetic cost.This paper makes two contributions.First,we present a constant-time half-table strategy(S_half)with branchless reconstruction logic and a formal indexing rule consistent with implementation.Second,we develop a Memory-Arithmetic Trade-off(MAT)model that unifies ROM,random-access memory(RAM),latency,energy,and side-channel risk into one device-aware objective.On ARM Cortex-M4,the proposed strategy reduces twiddle-factor ROM by 50%with a cycle overhead of about 3%–6%vs.full-table lookup in the same C framework.We additionally report cross-platform measurements on RISC-V and x86,where empirical best-strategy outcomes match MAT predictions.The resulting framework supports hardware-aware strategy selection with explicit assumptions on threat model and constant-time scope.展开更多
Smart cities,as a typical application in the field of the Internet of Things,can combine cloud computing to realize the intelligent control of objects and process massive data.While cloud computing brings convenience ...Smart cities,as a typical application in the field of the Internet of Things,can combine cloud computing to realize the intelligent control of objects and process massive data.While cloud computing brings convenience to smart city services,a serious problem is ensuring that confidential data cannot be leaked to malicious adversaries.Considering the security and privacy of data,data owners transmit sensitive data in its encrypted form to cloud server,which seriously hinders the improvements of potential utilization and efficient sharing.Public key searchable encryption ensures that users can securely retrieve the encrypted data without decryption.However,most existing schemes cannot resist keyword guessing attacks or the size of trapdoors linearly increases with the number of data owners.In this work,by utilizing certificateless encryption and proxy re-encryption,we design an authenticated searchable encryption scheme with constant trapdoors.The designed scheme preserves the privacy of index ciphertexts and keyword trapdoors,and can resist keyword guessing attacks.In addition,data users can generate and upload trapdoors with lower computation and communication overheads.We show that the proposed scheme is suitable for smart city implementations and applications by experimentally evaluating its performance.展开更多
基金funded by Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University,grant number PSAU/2025/01/34935.
摘要The ongoing expansion of the Internet of Things(IoT)fundamentally alters industrial and economic paradigms by integrating intelligent nodes throughout operational frameworks.Nonetheless,vulnerabilities surrounding system integrity and data confidentiality present major bottlenecks to widespread adoption,a dilemma severely intensified by impending quantum computing capabilities.Defending these networks demands the integration of post-quantum cryptographic primitives;yet,the severe hardware constraints characterizing peripheral IoT components complicate practical deployment.Quantum-resistant lattice cryptography offers a highly promising pathway to overcome these limitations,largely because the foundational security and throughput of these protocols hinge on polynomial multiplication performance.Consequently,optimizing the computational speed and architectural efficiency of this specific algebraic operation drastically enhances the viability of lattice-reliant defense mechanisms.To address this need,this study develops a specialized systolic array architecture engineered explicitly as an underlying arithmetic engine for polynomial multiplication within the Binary Ring Learning With Errors(BRLWE)protocol.Tailored for low-power hardware security modules(HSMs)situated at the network edge,the proposed circuit achieves rapid modular multiplication while ensuring a highly compact silicon footprint.By aligning the hardware layout with the precise algebraic properties of the BRLWE variation,this approach delivers a scalable,optimized framework for constructing secure IoT networks capable of resisting quantum adversaries,thereby acting as a pivotal building block for resilient industrial edge protection.Additionally,this study aligns with UN Sustainable Development Goals 8 and 9 by fostering digital trust in emerging technological systems and supporting the safe,adaptive growth of modern electronic economies.
基金Special Fund for Key Technologies in Blockchain of Shanghai Scientific and Technological Committee(23511100300)。
摘要Post-quantum transport layer security(PQ-TLS)is capable of effectively defending against quantum threats to current network communications,whereas its larger public key and certificate sizes as well as higher computational overhead may result in a significant performance reduction compared with conventional TLS.In this paper,we present a systematic evaluation of PQ-TLS performance across diverse deployment scenarios to address the following critical research questions.(1)What is the performance behavior of PQ-TLS across different TLS modes?(2)How does PQ-TLS perform across varying client scales?(3)Which network topology is most suitable for PQ-TLS?(4)How does PQ-TLS perform on personal computers(PCs)compared to embedded IoT devices?To the best of our knowledge,this is the first work to comprehensively address these issues,offering implementers some insights into PQ-TLS performance and guidance for optimizing it across diverse scenarios.
摘要The advent of quantum computers and algorithms challenges the semantic security of symmetric and asymmetric cryptosystems. Thus, the implementation of new cryptographic primitives is essential. They must follow the breakthroughs and properties of quantum calculators which make vulnerable existing cryptosystems. In this paper, we propose a random number generation model based on evaluation of the thermal noise power of the volume elements of an electronic system with a volume of 58.83 cm3. We prove through the sampling of the temperature of each volume element that it is difficult for an attacker to carry out an exploit. In 12 seconds, we generate for 7 volume elements, a stream of randomly generated keys of 187 digits that will be transmitted from source to destination through the properties of quantum cryptography.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(NSFC12226006 and NSFC11921001)the Natural Key Research and Development Program of China(2018YFA0704701).
摘要In 1994,P.Shor discovered quantum algorithms that can break both the RSA cryptosystem and the ElGamal cryptosystem.In 2007,a Canadian company D-Wave demonstrated the first quantum computer.These events and quick further developments have brought a crisis to secret communication.In 2022,the National Institute of Standards and Technology(NIST)announced 4 candidates—CRYSTALS-Kyber,CRYSTALS-Dilithium,Falcon,and Sphincs+—for post-quantum cryptography standards.The first 3 are based on lattice theory and the last on Hash functions.In 2024,NIST announced 3 standards:FIPS 203 based on CRYSTALS-Kyber,FIPS 204 based on CRYSTALS-Dilithium,and FIPS 205 based on Sphincs+.The fourth standard based on Falcon is on the way.It is well known that the security of the lattice-based cryptosystems relies on the hardness of the shortest vector problem(SVP),the closest vector problem(CVP),and their generalizations.In fact,the SVP is a ball packing problem and the CVP is a ball covering problem.Furthermore,both SVP and CVP are equivalent to arithmetic problems for positive definite quadratic forms.There are several books and survey papers dealing with the computational complexity of the lattice-based cryptography for classical computers.However,there is no review article to demonstrate the mathematical foundation of the complexity theory.This paper will briefly introduce post-quantum cryptography and demonstrate its mathematical roots in ball packing,ball covering,and positive definite quadratic forms.
摘要The advent of quantum computing poses a significant challenge to traditional cryptographic protocols,particularly those used in SecureMultiparty Computation(MPC),a fundamental cryptographic primitive for privacypreserving computation.Classical MPC relies on cryptographic techniques such as homomorphic encryption,secret sharing,and oblivious transfer,which may become vulnerable in the post-quantum era due to the computational power of quantum adversaries.This study presents a review of 140 peer-reviewed articles published between 2000 and 2025 that used different databases like MDPI,IEEE Explore,Springer,and Elsevier,examining the applications,types,and security issues with the solution of Quantum computing in different fields.This review explores the impact of quantum computing on MPC security,assesses emerging quantum-resistant MPC protocols,and examines hybrid classicalquantum approaches aimed at mitigating quantum threats.We analyze the role of Quantum Key Distribution(QKD),post-quantum cryptography(PQC),and quantum homomorphic encryption in securing multiparty computations.Additionally,we discuss the challenges of scalability,computational efficiency,and practical deployment of quantumsecure MPC frameworks in real-world applications such as privacy-preserving AI,secure blockchain transactions,and confidential data analysis.This review provides insights into the future research directions and open challenges in ensuring secure,scalable,and quantum-resistant multiparty computation.
摘要TheIndustrial Internet of Things(IIoT)has emerged as a cornerstone of Industry 4.0,enabling large-scale automation and data-driven decision-making across factories,supply chains,and critical infrastructures.However,the massive interconnection of resource-constrained devices also amplifies the risks of eavesdropping,data tampering,and device impersonation.While digital signatures are indispensable for ensuring authenticity and non-repudiation,conventional schemes such as RSA and ECCare vulnerable to quantumalgorithms,jeopardizing long-termtrust in IIoT deployments.This study proposes a lightweight,stateless,hash-based signature scheme that achieves post-quantum security while addressing the stringent efficiency demands of IIoT.The design introduces two key optimizations:(1)Forest ofRandomSubsets(FORS)onDemand,where subset secret keys are generated dynamically via a PseudoRandom Function(PRF),thereby minimizing storage overhead and eliminating key-reuse risks;and(2)Winternitz One-Time Signature Plus(WOTS+)partial hash-chain caching,which precomputes intermediate hash values at edge gateways,reducing device-side computations,latency,and energy consumption.The architecture integrates a multi-layerMerkle authentication tree(Merkle tree)and role-based delegation across sensors,gateways,and a Signature Authority Center(SAC),supporting scalable cross-site deployment and key rotation.Froma theoretical perspective,we establish a formal(Existential Unforgeability under Chosen Message Attack)EUF-CMA security proof using a game-based reduction framework.The proof demonstrates that any successful forgerymust reduce to breaking the underlying assumptions of PRF indistinguishability,(second)preimage resistance,or collision resistance,thus quantifying adversarial advantage and ensuring unforgeability.On the implementation side,our design achieves a balanced trade-off between postquantum security and lightweight performance,offering concrete deployment guidelines for real-time industrial systems.In summary,the proposed method contributes both practical system design and formal security guarantees,providing IIoT with a deployable signature substrate that enhances resilience against quantum-era threats and supports future extensions such as device attestation,group signatures,and anomaly detection.
基金supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea(NRF)funded by theMinistry of Science and ICT(2022K1A3A1A61014825)。
摘要With the rapid advancement of ICT and IoT technologies,the integration of Edge and Fog Computing has become essential to meet the increasing demands for real-time data processing and network efficiency.However,these technologies face critical security challenges,exacerbated by the emergence of quantum computing,which threatens traditional encryption methods.The rise in cyber-attacks targeting IoT and Edge/Fog networks underscores the need for robust,quantum-resistant security solutions.To address these challenges,researchers are focusing on Quantum Key Distribution and Post-Quantum Cryptography,which utilize quantum-resistant algorithms and the principles of quantum mechanics to ensure data confidentiality and integrity.This paper reviews the current security practices in IoT and Edge/Fog environments,explores the latest advancements in QKD and PQC technologies,and discusses their integration into distributed computing systems.Additionally,this paper proposes an enhanced QKD protocol combining the Cascade protocol and Kyber algorithm to address existing limitations.Finally,we highlight future research directions aimed at improving the scalability,efficiency,and practicality of QKD and PQC for securing IoT and Edge/Fog networks against evolving quantum threats.
基金Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number(PNURSP2025R343),Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University,Riyadh,Saudi Arabiathe Deanship of Scientific Research at Northern Border University,Arar,Saudi Arabia for funding this research work through the project number NBU-FFR-2025-1092-10.
摘要As quantum computing continues to advance,traditional cryptographic methods are increasingly challenged,particularly when it comes to securing critical systems like Supervisory Control andData Acquisition(SCADA)systems.These systems are essential for monitoring and controlling industrial operations,making their security paramount.A key threat arises from Shor’s algorithm,a powerful quantum computing tool that can compromise current hash functions,leading to significant concerns about data integrity and confidentiality.To tackle these issues,this article introduces a novel Quantum-Resistant Hash Algorithm(QRHA)known as the Modular Hash Learning Algorithm(MHLA).This algorithm is meticulously crafted to withstand potential quantum attacks by incorporating advanced mathematical and algorithmic techniques,enhancing its overall security framework.Our research delves into the effectiveness ofMHLA in defending against both traditional and quantum-based threats,with a particular emphasis on its resilience to Shor’s algorithm.The findings from our study demonstrate that MHLA significantly enhances the security of SCADA systems in the context of quantum technology.By ensuring that sensitive data remains protected and confidential,MHLA not only fortifies individual systems but also contributes to the broader efforts of safeguarding industrial and infrastructure control systems against future quantumthreats.Our evaluation demonstrates that MHLA improves security by 38%against quantumattack simulations compared to traditional hash functionswhilemaintaining a computational efficiency ofO(m⋅n⋅k+v+n).The algorithm achieved a 98%success rate in detecting data tampering during integrity testing.These findings underline MHLA’s effectiveness in enhancing SCADA system security amidst evolving quantum technologies.This research represents a crucial step toward developing more secure cryptographic systems that can adapt to the rapidly changing technological landscape,ultimately ensuring the reliability and integrity of critical infrastructure in an era where quantum computing poses a growing risk.
基金supported in part by the National Research Foundation of Korea(NRF)(No.RS-2025-00554650)supported by the Chung-Ang University research grant in 2024。
摘要With the accelerated growth of the Internet of Things(IoT),real-time data processing on edge devices is increasingly important for reducing overhead and enhancing security by keeping sensitive data local.Since these devices often handle personal information under limited resources,cryptographic algorithms must be executed efficiently.Their computational characteristics strongly affect system performance,making it necessary to analyze resource impact and predict usage under diverse configurations.In this paper,we analyze the phase-level resource usage of AES variants,ChaCha20,ECC,and RSA on an edge device and develop a prediction model.We apply these algorithms under varying parallelism levels and execution strategies across key generation,encryption,and decryption phases.Based on the analysis,we train a unified Random Forest model using execution context and temporal features,achieving R2 values up to 0.994 for power and 0.988 for temperature.Furthermore,the model maintains practical predictive performance even for cryptographic algorithms not included during training,demonstrating its ability to generalize across distinct computational characteristics.Our proposed approach reveals how execution characteristics and resource usage interacts,supporting proactive resource planning and efficient deployment of cryptographic workloads on edge devices.As our approach is grounded in phase-level computational characteristics rather than in any single algorithm,it provides generalizable insights that can be extended to a broader range of cryptographic algorithms that exhibit comparable phase-level execution patterns and to heterogeneous edge architectures.
基金funded by Deanship of Research and Graduate Studies at King Khalid University.The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Research and Graduate Studies at King Khalid University for funding this work through Large Group Project under grant number(RGP.2/556/45).
摘要Ensuring information security in the quantum era is a growing challenge due to advancements in cryptographic attacks and the emergence of quantum computing.To address these concerns,this paper presents the mathematical and computer modeling of a novel two-dimensional(2D)chaotic system for secure key generation in quantum image encryption(QIE).The proposed map employs trigonometric perturbations in conjunction with rational-saturation functions and hence,named as Trigonometric-Rational-Saturation(TRS)map.Through rigorous mathematical analysis and computational simulations,the map is extensively evaluated for bifurcation behaviour,chaotic trajectories,and Lyapunov exponents.The security evaluation validates the map’s non-linearity,unpredictability,and sensitive dependence on initial conditions.In addition,the proposed TRS map has further been tested by integrating it in a QIE scheme.The QIE scheme first quantum-encodes the classic image using the Novel Enhanced Quantum Representation(NEQR)technique,the TRS map is used for the generation of secure diffusion key,which is XOR-ed with the quantum-ready image to obtain the encrypted images.The security evaluation of the QIE scheme demonstrates superior security of the encrypted images in terms of statistical security attacks and also against Differential attacks.The encrypted images exhibit zero correlation and maximum entropy with demonstrating strong resilience due to 99.62%and 33.47%results for Number of Pixels Change Rate(NPCR)and Unified Average Changing Intensity(UACI).The results validate the effectiveness of TRS-based quantum encryption scheme in securing digital images against emerging quantum threats,making it suitable for secure image encryption in IoT and edge-based applications.
基金supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea(NRF)grant funded by the Korean government Ministry of Science and ICT(MIST)(RS-2022-00165225).
摘要Traditional chaotic maps struggle with narrow chaotic ranges and inefficiencies,limiting their use for lightweight,secure image encryption in resource-constrained Wireless Sensor Networks(WSNs).We propose the SPCM,a novel one-dimensional discontinuous chaotic system integrating polynomial and sine functions,leveraging a piecewise function to achieve a broad chaotic range()and a high Lyapunov exponent(5.04).Validated through nine benchmarks,including standard randomness tests,Diehard tests,and Shannon entropy(3.883),SPCM demonstrates superior randomness and high sensitivity to initial conditions.Applied to image encryption,SPCM achieves 0.152582 s(39%faster than some techniques)and 433.42 KB/s throughput(134%higher than some techniques),setting new benchmarks for chaotic map-based methods in WSNs.Chaos-based permutation and exclusive or(XOR)diffusion yield near-zero correlation in encrypted images,ensuring strong resistance to Statistical Attacks(SA)and accurate recovery.SPCM also exhibits a strong avalanche effect(bit difference),making it an efficient,secure solution for WSNs in domains like healthcare and smart cities.
摘要Cloud environments are essential for modern computing,but are increasingly vulnerable to Side-Channel Attacks(SCAs),which exploit indirect information to compromise sensitive data.To address this critical challenge,we propose SecureCons Framework(SCF),a novel consensus-based cryptographic framework designed to enhance resilience against SCAs in cloud environments.SCF integrates a dual-layer approach combining lightweight cryptographic algorithms with a blockchain-inspired consensus mechanism to secure data exchanges and thwart potential side-channel exploits.The framework includes adaptive anomaly detection models,cryptographic obfuscation techniques,and real-time monitoring to identify and mitigate vulnerabilities proactively.Experimental evaluations demonstrate the framework's robustness,achieving over 95%resilience against advanced SCAs with minimal computational overhead.SCF provides a scalable,secure,and efficient solution,setting a new benchmark for side-channel attack mitigation in cloud ecosystems.
基金supported by the Quantum Science and Technology-National Science and Technology Major Project(QNMP)under Grant Nos.2021ZD0301301,2021ZD0300705the Yunnan Provincial Key Area Science and Technology Program Project under Grant No.202502AD080015.
摘要Quantum Key Distribution(QKD)ensures secure key establishment through the principles of quantum mechanics;however,its effectiveness in practice hinges on dependable identity verification via classical channels during the post-processing phase.Current QKD implementations typically depend on pre-existing symmetric-key authentication,which suffers from limited scalability and complicated key management in extensive networks.Authentication methods utilizing post-quantum cryptography(PQC)signatures,based on complex mathematical assumptions,introduce extra and uncertain security dependencies,potentially compromising the security model integrity that QKD aims to maintain.This paper explores the application of hash-based signatures(HBS)for identity verification in the post-processing of QKD.HBS methods derive their security from cryptographic hash functions,which are integral to QKD protocols,allowing for scalable public-key-style authentication without the need for new computational assumptions.A detailed authentication framework is proposed,incorporating HBS-based verification into all essential phases of QKD post-processing,such as mutual certificate validation,basis sifting,parameter estimation,error correction verification,and privacy amplification.Security assessments indicate that the suggested framework maintains the security model integrity of QKD by relying cryptographically solely on the collision resistance of hash functions—without introducing new computational assumptions.At the system deployment level,it adheres to standard PKI trust assumptions which are necessary for public-key-style authentication and consistent with practical QKD network operations.Additionally,system-level evaluations affirm the scalability and practical applicability of HBS-based authentication,while also addressing the operational trade-offs among various HBS approaches in realistic QKD deployment contexts.
基金supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers JP21K11751,JP25K21805,JP26K02909,JP26K14821JST K Program Grant Number JPMJKP24U2,Japan。
摘要The rapid evolution of quantum computing poses a fundamental challenge to classical public-key cryptosystems,accelerating the adoption of lattice-based post-quantum cryptography in large-scale digital infrastructures,including Future Mobile Internet Technologies(FMIT)and their convergence applications(FMIT-CA).As lattice-based cryptography is expected to play an important role in such environments,accurate hardness estimation and parameter assessment of underlying lattice problems have become increasingly important.Since the security of these cryptographic schemes is closely related to the computational hardness of the Shortest Vector Problem(SVP),improving practical SVP-solving techniques contributes indirectly to the security evaluation of such systems.Among practical SVP solvers,sieve-based approaches such as the General Sieve Kernel(G6K)achieve state-of-the-art performance,yet their exponential complexity and resource demands constrain scalability in high-dimensional settings.In this work,we propose an improved version of the hybrid algorithm ENUM-Sieve Reduction(ESR)proposed by Toda et al.in ProvSec 2025.We refer to our proposal as ENUM-Sieve Reduction 2.0(ESR 2.0).It integrates Block Korkine-Zolotarev 2.0(BKZ 2.0)and extreme-pruning enumeration into the reduction pipeline and introduces a unimodular-matrix-based strategy for partial basis generation.Experimental results suggest that these enhancements enable stronger parameter configurations and more efficient execution in higher dimensions under realistic computational constraints.Experimental evaluations on prime cyclotomic ideal lattices demonstrate the practical usefulness of ESR 2.0 produces vectors equal to or shorter than those obtained by G6K in 75%of the tested instances for dimensions ranging from 96 to 130.Compared with ESR,ESR 2.0 achieves the same or shorter vectors in 62.5%of the tested instances.Although ESR 2.0 requires longer CPU time due to additional enumeration steps,GPU time and peak memory usage remain comparable to those of G6K and ESR.Furthermore,ESR 2.0 renewed record norms in the TU Darmstadt Ideal Lattice Challenge for dimensions 112,126,136,148 and 156.These results indicate the usability of ESR 2.0,providing a competitive and practical framework for high-dimensional SVP solving.The proposed improvements contribute to a more accurate assessment of lattice hardness,which is essential for secure parameter selection in post-quantum cryptographic systems supporting future mobile and converged digital environments.
摘要The standardization of the Module-Lattice-Based Key-Encapsulation Mechanism(ML-KEM,FIPS 203)creates urgent demand for efficient post-quantum cryptography on resource-constrained devices.In such deployments,twiddle-factor management in the Number Theoretic Transform(NTT)induces a practical trade-off:full tables reduce latency but consume read-only memory(ROM),while on-the-fly generation reduces ROM but increases arithmetic cost.This paper makes two contributions.First,we present a constant-time half-table strategy(S_half)with branchless reconstruction logic and a formal indexing rule consistent with implementation.Second,we develop a Memory-Arithmetic Trade-off(MAT)model that unifies ROM,random-access memory(RAM),latency,energy,and side-channel risk into one device-aware objective.On ARM Cortex-M4,the proposed strategy reduces twiddle-factor ROM by 50%with a cycle overhead of about 3%–6%vs.full-table lookup in the same C framework.We additionally report cross-platform measurements on RISC-V and x86,where empirical best-strategy outcomes match MAT predictions.The resulting framework supports hardware-aware strategy selection with explicit assumptions on threat model and constant-time scope.
基金supported by the Shandong Provincial Key Research and Development Program(No.2021CXGC010107)the National Natural Science Foundation of China(Nos.U21A20466,62325209)+3 种基金the New 20 Project of Higher Education of Jinan(No.202228017)the Special Project on Science and Technology Program of Hubei Province(No.2021BAA025)the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities(Nos.2042023kf0203,20420241013)the Researchers Supporting Project Number(RSP2024R509),King Saud University,Riyadh,Saudi Arabia。
摘要Smart cities,as a typical application in the field of the Internet of Things,can combine cloud computing to realize the intelligent control of objects and process massive data.While cloud computing brings convenience to smart city services,a serious problem is ensuring that confidential data cannot be leaked to malicious adversaries.Considering the security and privacy of data,data owners transmit sensitive data in its encrypted form to cloud server,which seriously hinders the improvements of potential utilization and efficient sharing.Public key searchable encryption ensures that users can securely retrieve the encrypted data without decryption.However,most existing schemes cannot resist keyword guessing attacks or the size of trapdoors linearly increases with the number of data owners.In this work,by utilizing certificateless encryption and proxy re-encryption,we design an authenticated searchable encryption scheme with constant trapdoors.The designed scheme preserves the privacy of index ciphertexts and keyword trapdoors,and can resist keyword guessing attacks.In addition,data users can generate and upload trapdoors with lower computation and communication overheads.We show that the proposed scheme is suitable for smart city implementations and applications by experimentally evaluating its performance.